BSSR is an open access licensed via CC BY 4.0, semi-annual, peer-reviewed, journal for academics that aims to establish and provide an intellectual platform for international scholars. The main interests of the journal are: 1. interest in the Balkans seen through the prism of different social science disciplines as well as 2. interest in the social changes in the global world seen and analyzed apart from the Balkans or through the way they affect the Balkans.
Goce Delcev University, Stip, North Macedonia
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Copyright (c) 2026 Balkan Social Science Review
DIGITAL MEDIA AND PARLIAMENTARY ENGAGEMENT: PERCEPTIONS OF SOCIAL SCIENCES STUDENTS AT TURKISH UNIVERSITIES
In the last decade, global society has undergone a considerable technological transformation that has dramatically changed the ways people communicate with each other at personal, social, government, and commercial levels. A large part of this transformation has been the emergence of digital media platforms, which are the preferred method of distributing information, connecting with others in a social context, and engaging with governments through interaction with citizens. With the increasing emphasis on digital media by governments as a way to disseminate official messages, influence public opinion, and communicate directly with citizens, digital media have become a central source of news for individuals regarding their own the Grand National Assembly of Turkey (GNAT) in Turkey's case. According to data from this study, 55.5% of all Social Studies students at Turkish universities indicated a preference for following the Grand National Assembly of Turkey (GNAT) news through digital media; in this case, X was by far the preferred outlet among digital media because of its high volume of political information. Overall, they were most interested in the overall social climate affecting their fellow students within Turkish society related to any developments on legislative processes through3 X. The research illustrates that student participation in different types of digital media platform users have experienced a positive relationship in three areas: cognitive, affective, and behavioral, especially with their knowledge acquisition due to a strong correlation between these variables (knowledge acquisition). In addition to the above-mentioned correlations, digital media platforms are particularly helpful to students wanting to learn about political processes/legal issues and are supportive of active engagement in the public debate. The overall results show that by using digital media, students can become more politically aware and will have higher levels of civic engagement throughout the country of Turkey.
NORMATIVE VERSUS GEOPOLITICAL ASPECTS OF THE EU ENLARGMENT PROCESS (SLOVAK AND MACEDONIAN CASE)
This paper presents a comparative analysis of Macedonia and Slovakia in the context of European integration process, focusing on Copenhagen criteria condition of minority protection. This comparative analysis identifies key constraints and facilitating factors in both cases and situates them within intergovernmentalist and realist interpretations of EU enlargement, including its procedural standards and strategic considerations. In both countries, minority issues were condition for EU accession and addressed through legal measures. After resolving the Hungarian minority issue in Slovakia and the Albanian minority issue in Macedonia, Slovakia advanced to EU membership in 2004, while in Macedonia (fifteen years after receiving candidate status and prior to the opening of accession negotiations) in 2020, a new minority issue emerged and was introduced as a condition, delaying the country’s further progress in this process. By applying intergovernmental and realist theories, the analysis in this paper explores whether EU enlargement depends on common EU policies, i.e. formal criteria, or whether individual interests and policies have a greater impact. The findings show that in the Slovak case, in addition to standard criteria, the geopolitical context plays an influential role in the country’s integration, while the progress of North Macedonia’s accession, bilateral issues with certain EU member states are more considered than progress in fulfilling formal criteria. Overall, the results show that, in addition to legal standards, individual interests of certain countries and geopolitical factors can influence the pace and dynamics of EU enlargement.
MAPPING IDEOLOGICAL PREFERENCES FOR WELFARE POLICY IN NORTH MACEDONIA: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF POLITICAL PARTIES AND INTEREST GROUPS
This study examines the ideological orientations and welfare policy preferences of political parties and interest groups in North Macedonia. Drawing on quantitative data from 360 respondents representing party members and civil society actors, the research explores how ideological values shape perceptions of the welfare state across multiple policy domains. Descriptive and inferential statistical analyses (t-tests, ANOVA, and Chi-square tests) were applied to examine differences across political affiliation, gender, organizational type, and key social policy areas, including education, health care, social protection, employment, and pensions. The findings indicate that ideological distinctions along the traditional left-right spectrum are relatively blurred. Although political parties formally identify with different ideological positions, respondents’ perceptions tend to cluster around moderate-left and social-democratic welfare orientations. Differences between political parties and interest groups emerge in several policy domains, with interest groups expressing stronger support for universalist welfare principles in education, social protection, employment, and pensions, while broad consensus is observed in health care policy. Overall, the results suggest that welfare attitudes in North Macedonia are shaped less by partisan ideological divides and more by shared socio-economic realities and institutional legacies inherited from the post-socialist transformation.
ASSESSING INSTITUTIONAL DATA COLLECTION PRACTICES FOR EQUALITY AND ANTI-DISCRIMINATION IN NORTH MACEDONIA
This paper examines the extent to which public institutions in the Republic of North Macedonia collect, disaggregate, and manage data relevant for measuring discrimination and promoting equality. Drawing on data collected through a questionnaire administered to 1,445 public institutional information holders, of which 363 responded (25.12%), the paper evaluates two main components: (1) whether institutions are legally authorized to collect data directly for measuring discrimination or collect data that can be repurposed for this goal, and (2) how this practice aligns with national and international principles and standards for equality data collection. International framework, predominantly under the United Nations, Council of Europe and the European Union, including the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, the European Convention on Human Rights, the EU primary and secondary law such as the Treaties, the Charter of Fundamental Rights, and the anti-discrimination and gender equality directives, establish obligations for comprehensive and disaggregated data collection systems aiming to identify unequal treatment and ensure design of an effective anti-discrimination measures. Similarly to the international standards, the national legislation, particularly the 2020 Law on Prevention and Protection from Discrimination (LPPD) and the 2012 Law on Equal Opportunities between Women and Men, mandates the collection and presentation of data according to discriminatory grounds. According to the findings from the filed-study conducted with a representative sample of public institutions, while 69% of surveyed institutions are authorized to collect relevant data, only a minority of them systematically collect such data, especially with regard to intersectionality, when two or more discriminatory grounds intersect each other (for example when ethnicity intersect gender, or disability with residential status or age with religion). Most of the collected data in North Macedonia are divided by gender and ethnicity, with limited collection on grounds such as gender identity or political belief. The majority of institutions do not share data with relevant national human rights institutions, and a significant share lack clarity about their legal duty. The paper concludes with policy recommendations for improving equality data systems to support evidence-based discrimination prevention and equality promotion. The text uses results from research and surveys that have been conducted in the country and abroad as an illustration of trends and patterns.
SUPERVISION OF MEDIA COMPANIES BY PUBLIC AUTHORITY WITHIN THE FRAMEWORK OF THE TURKISH LAW SYSTEM: AN EXAMPLE OF A STRICT BUT IMPERFECT OVERSIGHT
In terms of Turkish law, the public authority's supervision of media companies has a two-legged control mechanism. This mechanism includes the Radio and Television Supreme Board, which has administrative and financial autonomy, and the Ministry of Trade, an executive body element which has both administrative and political aspects. The legal bases of this multiple supervision mechanism of media companies are also different from each other. On the one hand, there exists Law No. 6112, which has a completely public law character, and on the other hand, Law No. 6102, which is essentially a part of Turkish private law, but also includes provisions that have a public law nature, constitute the legal regime regarding the supervision of media companies by the public authority. Although this supervision mechanism, which is implemented by more than one institution within the framework of more than one piece of legislation, seems to serve an ideal, such as media companies being subject to a stricter and more realistic control, it also contains handicaps that will lead to the failure of this ideal.
FROM RANTSEV TO THE PRESENT: MAPPING THE EUROPEAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS’ JURISPRUDENCE ON TRAFFICKED MIGRANTS
This paper examines the jurisprudential evolution of the European Court of Human Rights in protecting trafficked migrants under Article 4 of the European Convention on Human Rights. It traces the expansion of the "living instrument" doctrine, mapping the Court’s transition from a narrow prohibition of slavery toward a framework of active, multi-dimensional State duties. The analysis is structured around three analytical pillars: the consolidation of the tripartite positive obligations of legislation, operation, and procedure; the harmonization of Strasbourg law with international anti-trafficking standards and the non-punishment principle; and the recent shift toward intersectional vulnerability, where gender and irregular immigration status converge. By evaluating the Court’s widening interpretative lens, the paper illustrates how Article 4 has adapted to the specific complexities of modern migration. It demonstrates that the Court has established an authoritative legal standard for the protection of all persons within its jurisdiction, regardless of administrative standing. Ultimately, the paper provides a roadmap for understanding how the Court increasingly decouples fundamental human rights from legal status.
THE EUROPEAN PHYSICAL BORDER PROTECTION AND ITS EFFECT ON IRREGULAR MIGRATION
Irregular migration has posed a persistent challenge to the European Union for decades, reaching a critical peak during the 2015–2016 migration crisis. In response, several Member States implemented physical border protection measures, including the construction of fences and barriers. This study investigates three core research questions: (1) whether the erection of border fences represents a unique phenomenon in Europe; (2) whether such measures are lawful under EU border protection law; and (3) whether they are effective in mitigating irregular migration. Drawing on time-series data from FRONTEX (2014–2025), the paper analyses trends in irregular border crossings and the evolution of physical border infrastructure across the EU. The findings indicate that border fences are not unprecedented in Europe, are legally permissible under current EU frameworks, and can serve as a legitimate, though not exclusive, tool for managing migratory flows. The study also explores conceptual distinctions between irregular and illegal migration and considers the instrumentalization of migration as a political tactic. While physical barriers may reduce pressure on specific border sections, their effectiveness is contingent upon broader geopolitical, legal, and humanitarian factors.
HALAL, KOSHER AND THE LAW: RELIGIOUS DIETARY REQUIREMENTS AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS FOR PASSENGERS’ RIGHTS IN AVIATION LAW
In this paper author examines specific dietary rules in Islam and Judaism through the concrete legal framework of transport and aviation law. The aim of the paper is to show that the modern airline industry maybe unaware of, or still in the stages of adjusting its policies towards, the needs of large religious groups who, while traveling, can encounter serious difficulties during flight disruptions. Also, this paper analyzes the basic concepts of food law in the two major Abrahamic religions and underlines that the faithful do not have much maneuvering space if they want to follow the laws of their respective faiths. Eating forbidden food is only allowed in extraordinary circumstances and in cases of serious need. This paper offers some suggestions for airline industry in order to cope with growing fluctuation of travelers and increasing demand for food which is prepared and offered in accordance with religious dietary rules.
GENERATIVE AI AND THE CYBERBULLYING OF CHILDREN IN INDIA: LEGAL GAPS, RISKS, AND PRACTICE-BASED POLICY SAFEGUARDS
The rapid evolution of generative artificial intelligence (Gen-AI) has fundamentally transformed digital interactions, while simultaneously intensifying the scale and complexity of cyberbullying against children. In India, wheredigital adoption among youth is rapidly expanding, Gen-AI has enabled new forms of online harm, including deepfakes, AI-driven impersonation, misinformation, and the generation of exploitative content. Despite a growing body ofliterature on cyberbullying and AI, the literature on their intersection within the Indian legal and policy framework remains limited. This study adopts a qualitative doctrinal methodology supplemented by a comprehensive overviewof key legislative frameworks, including the Information Technology Act (IT), 2000, Information Technology (Intermediaries Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) 2021, the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act(POCSO), 2012, and the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), 2023. It also evaluates secondary literature to examine both normative structures and practical enforcement challenges. In addition, the study undertakes a comparativeassessment of regulatory approaches in jurisdictions such as the European Union, the United Kingdom, the United States and Australia to situate India within emerging global governance trends. The findings reveal a significantregulatory gap, as existing legal frameworks remain inadequately equipped to address AI-driven cyberbullying, particularly in relation to synthetic content, anonymity, and algorithmic amplification. Structural challenges such as weak enforcement, limited digital literacy, and a lack of AI-specific safeguards further exacerbate children’s vulnerability, resulting in psychological harm, social exclusion, and long-term developmental consequences. This studycontributes to the emerging field of AI and child protection by (i) offering a conceptual integration of Gen- AI risks with cyberbullying frameworks, (ii) providing a comparative legal critique of existing regulatory regimes, and (iii) proposing a multi-layered, child-centric policy framework that combines legal reform, platform accountability, and ethical AI governance. Keywords: Gen- AI, Cyberbullying, Child Protection, Deepfakes, Digital Safety, AI Regulation, India
This front matter presents the journal's publication details, editorial leadership, and the international composition of its editorial board.
Copyright (c) 2025 Balkan Social Science Review
THE PHENOMENON OF GHOSTING IN DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
In recent years, the concept of ghosting has gained attention in both every day and academic communication. Scholars define it as the interruption of communication initiated by one person (temporary or permanent), with the intention of limiting or completely severing contact with individuals who negatively impact the relationship, often accomplished using one or more technological channels (LeFebvre et al., 2019). This paper analyzes scientific articles on the phenomenon of ghosting, published in full on Google Scholar between 2017 and 2024. The corpus was narrowed to 50 freely available full-text articles from humanities fields, including psychology, communication, and language studies, and categorized into four thematic groups: articles focusing on personality traits, articles centered on individual characteristics, studies examining motivation, and research addressing the consequences of ghosting. Research indicates that ghosting is driven by personal characteristics, coping styles, and the ease of ending contact in digital environments, while at the same time producing a range of negative emotional reactions, especially in long-term relationships and friendships. The research findings indicate that ghosting is a multidimensional phenomenon that can be explained only when all relevant factors are considered, including individual traits, motivation, consequences, and contextual influences. Furthermore, the study highlights the need for a more precise definition of the phenomenon itself, as it manifests differently depending on the goals of individuals who employ this abrupt communication-termination style and on the victim’s perception.
The impact of artificial intelligence (AI) on human society is indisputable. This paper explores AI's influence on the media industry, with a particular focus on understanding the effects and implications of generative imagery and other AI integrations across various dimensions of the media landscape. A methodical literature review highlights key themes, including content creation, curation, visual media, privacy concerns, and evolving media ethics. The findings demonstrate that AI-generated imagery serves as a powerful creative tool, yet remains in constant evolution and demands a well-defined legal and ethical framework for responsible use in journalism and media. The results also emphasize the need for professional guidance, continuous skill development, and the implementation of ethical AI practices within the industry.
THE RUSSIAN - UKRAINIAN WAR AND THE STRENGTHENING OF IRREDENTIST NARRATIVE IN THE CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES AT THE BEGINNING OF THE XXI CENTURY
This article will analyze the reasons for the intensification of irredentist rhetoric in Central and Easter Europe, including those caused by the impact of the Russian-Ukrainian war. Through the prism of different approaches, the essence of irredentism is revealed, and its transformation is shown depending on changes in the system of international relations, from the idea of national unification to an instrument of expansion. At the present stage, irredentism is expansionist in nature, due to the implementation of the Russian Federation's aggressive policy towards Ukraine. The authors analyze the ideological justification of the irredentist policy of the Russian Federation, which is carried out, among other things, under such irredentist slogans as “one nation”, “protection of compatriots”, “restoration of historical justice”. The indecision and inconsistency of international organizations in condemning the actions of the aggressor state, in particular, the occupation of Crimea in 2014, contribute to the intensification of irredentist rhetoric in Central and Eastern Europe. The article analyzes the statements of Romanian and Hungarian politicians, which show the presence of irredentist slogans regarding the territory of Ukraine. The irredentist component is contained in the programs of the right-wing radical political parties Greater Romania, Fidesz, and Jobbik (For a Better Hungary). Several explanations are given for the reasons for the actualization of irredentist rhetoric, which, despite international law norms regarding the inviolability of state borders, persists in political discourse. Among the reasons identified are the popularity of the idea of a “Great State” and the strengthening of populism against the backdrop of the identity crisis in Central and Eastern Europe, which is driven by fears of losing sovereignty and traditional values in the context of European integration processes. Finally, the authors emphasize the weak reaction of the world to the aggressive policy of the Russian Federation as a significant contributing factor.
KOSOVAN STATEHOOD AS A PRETEXT FOR CATALAN INDEPENDENCE? BETWEEN DOMESTIC PREFERENCES AND EXTERNAL CONSIDERATIONS
The Catalan bid for independence has partly drawn inspiration from Kosovo’s 2008 unilateral proclamation of independence from Serbia. This seemingly convenient resemblance has its limitations, especially when domestic political and social aspects, as well as the extent of international support are considered. Thus, apart from considerations involving specific settings and accompanying differences in terms of economic development, the analysis of the two cases underscores the crucial role of foreign stakeholders’ decision to offer assistance so that the process of attainment of statehood and international recognition can proceed. Unlike Kosovo, whose leadership garnered backing from key Western capitals, the Catalan movement was left with minimal external advocacy, which at no point gave the green light to border alterations of a state found in a complex geopolitical situation.
SMART INFERENCE-DRIVEN RISKS: LEGAL CHALLENGES UNDER THE GDPR AND THE EGYPTIAN PDPL
This paper examines the legal dilemma surrounding inferences about sensitive data and how the EU General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and the Egyptian Personal Data Protection Law (PDPL) treat such inferences as sensitive data. Using doctrinal research supported by a review of the jurisprudence of the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU), this study explores how both frameworks address the protection of inferred data. This analysis reveals significant overlap in the definitions of personal and sensitive data, confusion over consent requirements in Egypt, and heightened risks of discrimination arising from inferred data. Moreover, the existing risk assessment mechanism is insufficient to produce a protection for the inferred data and indicates the necessity for an impact assessment akin to that of the GDPR. This study addresses a proposed framework for the Egyptian legislature and courts for the inferred data that could be assessed through the risk criterion, the data subject’s rights with inferences, and the controller and processor’s transparency obligation. Furthermore, the paper argues that recognition of such inferences as sensitive data is globally essential for ensuring stronger safeguards in the era of AI and big data and addresses global lessons for other jurisdictions that have not yet recognized sensitive data.
THE RIGHT TO DEFENSE IN THE CONTEXT OF PENAL ENFORCEMENT: INTERNATIONAL AND EUROPEAN HUMAN RIGHTS STANDARDS
This study analyses the evolution and current standards of the right to defense within the framework of penal enforcement, as developed under international and European human rights law. It examines how the guarantees of legal assistance, access to counsel, and fair treatment of persons deprived of liberty have been shaped by three major legal systems: the United Nations, the Council of Europe – particularly through the jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights – and the European Union. The paper identifies the principal legal instruments and case law defining defense rights during imprisonment, including the UNCAT, the Nelson Mandela Rules, the ECHR, and the EU directives on procedural safeguards and legal aid. Special attention is given to the interaction between the ECtHR and the CJEU in harmonizing standards of fair trial and legal assistance. The analysis concludes that the right to defense in penal enforcement represents an evolving and integral component of the rule of law, requiring constant judicial oversight and coherent implementation across international and regional frameworks.
THE EVOLUTION OF CORPORATE MANAGEMENT - A MIXED SYSTEM?
There are two systems of corporate governance typically employed worldwide: monistic and dualistic. Traditionally, in some Central and Eastern European countries, the dualistic approach has been dominant, requiring a strict separation of the executive and supervisory bodies. In the last few years, in a movement that can be considered an intra-European legal convergence, there have been various corporate legislation reforms. This article is devoted to analyzing the results of those reforms, and they have, in fact, created in hitherto traditionally dualistic systems the legal possibility of transitioning to a monistic system. While the dualist system has not been totally abandoned, an alternative option of organ formation has been introduced in selected companies, modelled on certain case law jurisdictions. The article thus shows the evolution and reasons for such a process and assess its effectiveness. The article does not, in principle, analyse the traditional Western European legal systems, where the issues in question have been discussed for years in a theoretical context. Instead, it focuses on new legislation in Poland and Ukraine, two countries which have recently made very significant changes to their legal frameworks. This approach makes it possible to highlight the latest European trends. In the article, reference is made to a number of arguments supporting the introduced mixed system, while simultaneously rejecting the previous view that legislation must adopt either a single-tier or a two-tier system. This therefore relates to the private nature of companies, the freedom to shape their internal relations, and the experiences of European companies.
ON A CONSTITUTIONAL AND NATIONAL IDENTITY OF THE EU MEMBER STATES: SAME BUT DIFFERENT?
This article examines whether the concepts of national identity and constitutional identity in the European Union’s legal framework can be used interchangeably. By tracing the historical evolution and travaux préparatoires of Article 4(2) TEU, the paper demonstrates that the drafters consistently employed the term national identity as an autonomous concept of EU primary law, deliberately omitting any reference to constitutionality. Building on the theoretical framework proposed by Elise Cloots, the article develops a teleological and interpretative argument showing that the interchangeable use of these terms lacks textual and historical support. It then examines how Member States’ constitutional courts, particularly the German Federal Constitutional Court have constructed a doctrine of constitutional identity review rooted in national constitutional law. This jurisprudence distinguishes constitutional identity as an absolute, domestically defined limit to European integration, while national identity under Article 4(2) TEU functions as a principle of respect constraining the exercise of Union competences. The article concludes that conflating these two notions risks both conceptual confusion and constitutional deadlock within the EU. A clear differentiation between national and constitutional identity is therefore essential for maintaining a coherent balance between national sovereignty and the primacy of EU law.
LEGAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A MAXIMUM MORTGAGE WITH AN ANALYSIS OF THE LATEST CASE LAW
The article examines the legal nature and transferability of the maximum mortgage under the Slovenian Law of Property Code (Stvarnopravni zakonik or in abbreviation SPZ), focusing on Article 146(4) and its interpretation in case law and theory. It first recalls the accessory nature of liens, which normally follow the secured claim as to creation, scope, transfer and extinction. Against this background, it shows how the maximum mortgage was designed to secure fluctuating or future claims arising from an ongoing creditor–debtor relationship, up to a registered ceiling amount. The authors reconstruct the prevailing Slovenian view that, in the case of a maximum mortgage, the accessory link exists not between individual claims and the mortgage but between the business relationship and the maximum mortgage as a protective right in rem. They contrast this functional understanding with the literal wording of Article 146(4) SPZ, which excludes the transfer of the mortgage when a secured claim is assigned, and with the conservative approach of the Supreme Court. According to its case law, an assigned claim secured by a maximum mortgage is transferred without security, which reduces its market value and narrows the practical usefulness of this instrument. Using German and Austrian law as key comparators, the article argues that the Slovenian solution is unnecessarily rigid and departs from models that allow, under certain conditions, the transfer or transformation of a maximum mortgage into a fixed mortgage when claims are assigned or when the credit relationship is reduced to a single outstanding claim. The authors endorse the more recent doctrinal position and the approach taken by the Higher Court of Ljubljana, under which individual “sub-mortgages” arise within the maximum mortgage and accompany the assigned claim to the new creditor, creating a community of mortgagees governed by general rules of the Obligations Code. The general view that a maximum mortgage is more flexible than a fixed mortgage is, in the Slovenian context, undermined by the current statutory wording and restrictive case law, which call for a systemic and functional reinterpretation of Article 146 SPZ – or, failing that, for legislative reform.
DO VARIOUS FORMS OF CORRUPTION EXERT DIFFERENT EFFECTS ON ENTREPRENEURSHIP: EVIDENCE FROM CEE (POST)TRANSITION COUNTRIES
The paper analyses the effect of different forms of corruption on entrepreneurship in a sample of Central and Eastern European countries: Albania, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Poland, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Serbia, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia. The contribution of this paper is twofold. The paper contributes to the existing literature through panel data analysis of the effect of various forms of corruption on new business density rates in the 2006-2020 period. The types of corruption included in the analysis cover judicial, legislative, executive, and public sector corruption, and political corruption index as the aggregate measure. The results show that not all corruption types have the same effect on entrepreneurship. Aggregate measure of political corruption adversely affects formal entrepreneurship. However, three particular types of corruption – public sector corruption, legislative corrupt activities and judicial corruption – have opposite effects. While public sector corruption and legislative corrupt activities harm the new business density rate, it is shown that larger judicial corruption is positively related to the number of newly registered firms.
ACCOUNTING BOOKS AS EVIDENCE IN TAX AND CRIMINAL PROCEEDINGS OF THE REPUBLIC OF SERBIA
The authors’ focus is directed toward the analysis of one frequently used means of evidence, as well as a comparative analysis of this means of evidence in tax and criminal proceedings. After a brief overview of the taxpayers’ obligation to keep accounting books, special attention is devoted to the role of accounting books as evidence, first in tax proceedings and then in criminal proceedings.The importance of business books from the aspect of tax and criminal proceedings is reflected in the fact that in the event of a lack of evidence of the existence of the criminal offense of tax evasion, the court will issue an acquittal. Namely, there is a possibility that during the tax proceedings, omissions may occur that relate to an inadequately determined amount of tax liability or inadequate documentation used when determining the tax liability. In such cases, an expert examination of business books is a crucial evidentiary measure for convicting the perpetrator of the criminal offense of tax evasion. Irregularities in the keeping of business books during the tax proceedings may lead to an acquittal of the tax evader due to a lack of evidence. For certain types of taxes, as well as for particular categories of taxpayers, accounting books play a key role in determining their tax liability. This raises the question of whether the role of this means of evidence in tax and criminal proceedings has been adequately regulated by the applicable procedural laws. In response to this question, the authors, on the basis of the results obtained from their research, will propose a de lege ferenda solution.
SPECIFIC TOOLS FOR THE INTERGENERATIONAL PRESERVATION OF FAMILY COMPANIES AND WEALTH IN SLOVENIA AND HUNGARY
Family companies constitute an essential type of company in national and global economies, yet their long-term survival depends on effective succession planning. If the intergenerational transfer is not arranged in advance, the company faces the risk of fragmentation and even dissolution. Rather than comparing an identical legal tool in both jurisdictions, the article investigates two different instruments: one for advance and timely planning, and the other for the prevention of fragmentation through succession when no prior planning exists. Each tool is analyzed within its national framework, with the aim of demonstrating how such instruments may serve as role models not only for Slovenia and Hungary, but also for other jurisdictions. From the perspective of Slovenian law, the article considers whether special protective succession rules, similar to those preventing the fragmentation of protected farms, could be introduced to preserve family companies in cases where no prior transfer arrangements exist. From the perspective of Hungarian law, the paper analyses the asset management foundation, a private-law mechanism that allows founders to determine conditions for the governance and transfer of family wealth across multiple generations. The comparison reveals two contrasting approaches: a statutory framework aimed at preventing fragmentation of family companies, and a flexible private-law tool reserved primarily for families with substantial assets. Despite their differences in scope and accessibility, both instruments may coexist within a national framework: one facilitating advance succession planning, the other preventing fragmentation in its absence.
INTERPRETATIVE DECISIONS OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL COURT OF NORTH MACEDONIA IN THE FUNCTION OF PROTECTING HUMAN RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS
The paper examines the “tense” relationship between the Constitutional Court and the Assembly through the prism of two significant innovations in constitutional judiciary in the Republic of North Macedonia. The first concerns the introduction of what, in European constitutional judiciary, is called an “interpretative decision”. Pursuant to Article 36 of the Act of the Court, the Court can conduct an initial review of constitutionality, can express doubts and instituted proceedings, and in the resolution can set out its legal positions, but defers the final decisions and prescribes a time-limit for the adopter to bring the regulation into conformity, under the repressive “threat” of a repealing or annulling decision. The purpose of this innovation is for the Court to preserve the integrity of the legal order while granting the body that adopted the contested regulation one further (time-limited) opportunity to correct itself and return to the sphere of constitutionality, thereby preventing legal vacuums that could have serious implications for the order. The paper will analyze the objectives, the legal nature and the effect of this type of “repressive interpretative decisions”, the grounds for their introduction, and their impact on the “tense” and complex interaction between the Constitutional Court (as a negative) and the Assembly (as a positive legislator). The second innovation consists of the introduction of the possibility for the Court to monitor the implementation of constitutionality, legality, and the rights and freedoms of individuals and citizens as guaranteed by the Constitution, and, at its own discretion, to adopt a special report indicating the need for measures to be undertaken for their realization and protection, which shall be submitted to the competent authority.
UNTANGLING THE POPULIST KNOT: ADMINISTRATIVE LAW AND THE STRUGGLE FOR RULE OF LAW RESTORATION IN POLAND
This article explores the significant challenges of restoring the rule of law in Poland following a period of democratic backsliding in 2015-2023. It also analyzes how administrative law was distinctively well suited for instrumentalization by the populist government, facilitated by its standard features like enforcement privileges and policy discretion when constitutional checks were weakened. This strategic use of administrative tools, alongside attacks on judicial independence, created a deeply interwoven "populist knot" of legal and political changes. Rule of law restoration in Poland is not just legal reversal, but a profound political struggle within a polarized society. It is constrained by institutional factors such as cohabitation with two consecutive Presidents, who are aligned with the previous ruling party, and the control of key bodies like the Constitutional Tribunal and the National Council of the Judiciary (KRS) by political appointees. While some progress is being made through actions not requiring legislation, reforming the administrative state and its legal framework to prevent future instrumentalization remains a huge challenge, especially in the light of the 2025 presidential elections, surprisingly won by a populist candidate opposing the government. An important problem is also confronting the administrative law's own potential for authoritarian use and to ensure it serves its protective function for all. The article argues that understanding how administrative law is being instrumentalized and addressing its structural vulnerabilities is crucial for building a resilient rule of law system against future populist pressures.
RIGHT TO INFORMATION IN MISDEMEANOUR PROCEEDINGS - ANALYSIS OF PRACTITIONERS` EXPERIENCE IN CROATIA
The paper presents the results of a study on the experiences of practitioners with the right to information in misdemeanour proceedings in the Republic of Croatia. The research was conducted in the form of semi-structured interviews with three groups of practitioners: prosecutors, adjudicators and defence attorneys. The research focused on three groups of rights that substantively constitute the right to information in accordance with the Directive on the right to information in criminal proceedings and the practice of the ECtHR: the right to information concerning procedural rights, the right to information concerning accusations and the right of access to the case file. Following the previously conducted theoretical-normative research, which pointed out certain inconsistencies in the current legislation on misdemeanours, the empirical research aimed to verify the results of the theoretical research and to determine the compliance of the legal framework and practice with the Directive on the right to information in criminal proceedings. The study of practitioners' experiences in misdemeanour proceedings revealed the weaknesses of the current legislation and paved the way for future research and the creation of a comprehensive and coherent legal framework.
AUTOMATION IN ACTION: EXPERIENCE WITH QUICK AND COST-EFFICIENT ADMINISTRATIVE DECISIONS IN HUNGARY
Automated decision-making can streamline administrative procedures, reducing the burden on authorities in straightforward cases. However, a concerning trend emerges: negative decisions challenged by clients are often so simplified that they render judicial review meaningless, leaving issues unresolved. This is not merely a technical issue but a constitutional one. Clients are frequently deprived of meaningful reasoning, procedural safeguards, and effective legal remedies. Administrative decisions should uphold legality and transparency, ensuring fair proceedings. When a decision lacks proper justification and courts cannot assess its legality, it becomes unsuitable for review, undermining due process. If automation leads to decisions lacking transparency and accountability, it threatens fundamental legal principles. This study aims to show how automated -decision making is done in practice and what legal problems has emerged already by exploring casefiles and judicial decisions to highlight the risks of automated decision-making and calls for a balanced approach to maintain efficiency while safeguarding constitutional rights and judicial oversight.