BSSR is a semi-annual, peer-reviewed, journal for academics that aims to establish and provide an intellectual platform for international scholars. The main interests of the journal are: 1. interest in the Balkans seen through the prism of different social science disciplines as well as 2. interest in the social changes in the global world seen and analyzed apart from the Balkans or through the way they affect the Balkans.
Goce Delcev University, Stip, North Macedonia
Permissions Authors are expected to obtain permission from copyright holders for reproducing any illustrations, tables, figures or lengthy quotations previously published elsewhere. BSSR will not be held accountable for any copyright infringement caused by the authors. Copyright The content offered in the BSSR remains the intellectual property of the authors and their publishers respectively. University “Goce Delcev”- Shtip, R. Macedonia and BSSR keap the right to promote and re-publish the texts.
Copyright (c) 2026 Balkan Social Science Review
This front matter presents the journal's publication details, editorial leadership, and the international composition of its editorial board.
Copyright (c) 2025 Balkan Social Science Review
THE PHENOMENON OF GHOSTING IN DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
In recent years, the concept of ghosting has gained attention in both every day and academic communication. Scholars define it as the interruption of communication initiated by one person (temporary or permanent), with the intention of limiting or completely severing contact with individuals who negatively impact the relationship, often accomplished using one or more technological channels (LeFebvre et al., 2019). This paper analyzes scientific articles on the phenomenon of ghosting, published in full on Google Scholar between 2017 and 2024. The corpus was narrowed to 50 freely available full-text articles from humanities fields, including psychology, communication, and language studies, and categorized into four thematic groups: articles focusing on personality traits, articles centered on individual characteristics, studies examining motivation, and research addressing the consequences of ghosting. Research indicates that ghosting is driven by personal characteristics, coping styles, and the ease of ending contact in digital environments, while at the same time producing a range of negative emotional reactions, especially in long-term relationships and friendships. The research findings indicate that ghosting is a multidimensional phenomenon that can be explained only when all relevant factors are considered, including individual traits, motivation, consequences, and contextual influences. Furthermore, the study highlights the need for a more precise definition of the phenomenon itself, as it manifests differently depending on the goals of individuals who employ this abrupt communication-termination style and on the victim’s perception.
The impact of artificial intelligence (AI) on human society is indisputable. This paper explores AI's influence on the media industry, with a particular focus on understanding the effects and implications of generative imagery and other AI integrations across various dimensions of the media landscape. A methodical literature review highlights key themes, including content creation, curation, visual media, privacy concerns, and evolving media ethics. The findings demonstrate that AI-generated imagery serves as a powerful creative tool, yet remains in constant evolution and demands a well-defined legal and ethical framework for responsible use in journalism and media. The results also emphasize the need for professional guidance, continuous skill development, and the implementation of ethical AI practices within the industry.
THE RUSSIAN - UKRAINIAN WAR AND THE STRENGTHENING OF IRREDENTIST NARRATIVE IN THE CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES AT THE BEGINNING OF THE XXI CENTURY
This article will analyze the reasons for the intensification of irredentist rhetoric in Central and Easter Europe, including those caused by the impact of the Russian-Ukrainian war. Through the prism of different approaches, the essence of irredentism is revealed, and its transformation is shown depending on changes in the system of international relations, from the idea of national unification to an instrument of expansion. At the present stage, irredentism is expansionist in nature, due to the implementation of the Russian Federation's aggressive policy towards Ukraine. The authors analyze the ideological justification of the irredentist policy of the Russian Federation, which is carried out, among other things, under such irredentist slogans as “one nation”, “protection of compatriots”, “restoration of historical justice”. The indecision and inconsistency of international organizations in condemning the actions of the aggressor state, in particular, the occupation of Crimea in 2014, contribute to the intensification of irredentist rhetoric in Central and Eastern Europe. The article analyzes the statements of Romanian and Hungarian politicians, which show the presence of irredentist slogans regarding the territory of Ukraine. The irredentist component is contained in the programs of the right-wing radical political parties Greater Romania, Fidesz, and Jobbik (For a Better Hungary). Several explanations are given for the reasons for the actualization of irredentist rhetoric, which, despite international law norms regarding the inviolability of state borders, persists in political discourse. Among the reasons identified are the popularity of the idea of a “Great State” and the strengthening of populism against the backdrop of the identity crisis in Central and Eastern Europe, which is driven by fears of losing sovereignty and traditional values in the context of European integration processes. Finally, the authors emphasize the weak reaction of the world to the aggressive policy of the Russian Federation as a significant contributing factor.
KOSOVAN STATEHOOD AS A PRETEXT FOR CATALAN INDEPENDENCE? BETWEEN DOMESTIC PREFERENCES AND EXTERNAL CONSIDERATIONS
The Catalan bid for independence has partly drawn inspiration from Kosovo’s 2008 unilateral proclamation of independence from Serbia. This seemingly convenient resemblance has its limitations, especially when domestic political and social aspects, as well as the extent of international support are considered. Thus, apart from considerations involving specific settings and accompanying differences in terms of economic development, the analysis of the two cases underscores the crucial role of foreign stakeholders’ decision to offer assistance so that the process of attainment of statehood and international recognition can proceed. Unlike Kosovo, whose leadership garnered backing from key Western capitals, the Catalan movement was left with minimal external advocacy, which at no point gave the green light to border alterations of a state found in a complex geopolitical situation.
SMART INFERENCE-DRIVEN RISKS: LEGAL CHALLENGES UNDER THE GDPR AND THE EGYPTIAN PDPL
This paper examines the legal dilemma surrounding inferences about sensitive data and how the EU General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and the Egyptian Personal Data Protection Law (PDPL) treat such inferences as sensitive data. Using doctrinal research supported by a review of the jurisprudence of the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU), this study explores how both frameworks address the protection of inferred data. This analysis reveals significant overlap in the definitions of personal and sensitive data, confusion over consent requirements in Egypt, and heightened risks of discrimination arising from inferred data. Moreover, the existing risk assessment mechanism is insufficient to produce a protection for the inferred data and indicates the necessity for an impact assessment akin to that of the GDPR. This study addresses a proposed framework for the Egyptian legislature and courts for the inferred data that could be assessed through the risk criterion, the data subject’s rights with inferences, and the controller and processor’s transparency obligation. Furthermore, the paper argues that recognition of such inferences as sensitive data is globally essential for ensuring stronger safeguards in the era of AI and big data and addresses global lessons for other jurisdictions that have not yet recognized sensitive data.
THE RIGHT TO DEFENSE IN THE CONTEXT OF PENAL ENFORCEMENT: INTERNATIONAL AND EUROPEAN HUMAN RIGHTS STANDARDS
This study analyses the evolution and current standards of the right to defense within the framework of penal enforcement, as developed under international and European human rights law. It examines how the guarantees of legal assistance, access to counsel, and fair treatment of persons deprived of liberty have been shaped by three major legal systems: the United Nations, the Council of Europe – particularly through the jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights – and the European Union. The paper identifies the principal legal instruments and case law defining defense rights during imprisonment, including the UNCAT, the Nelson Mandela Rules, the ECHR, and the EU directives on procedural safeguards and legal aid. Special attention is given to the interaction between the ECtHR and the CJEU in harmonizing standards of fair trial and legal assistance. The analysis concludes that the right to defense in penal enforcement represents an evolving and integral component of the rule of law, requiring constant judicial oversight and coherent implementation across international and regional frameworks.
THE EVOLUTION OF CORPORATE MANAGEMENT - A MIXED SYSTEM?
There are two systems of corporate governance typically employed worldwide: monistic and dualistic. Traditionally, in some Central and Eastern European countries, the dualistic approach has been dominant, requiring a strict separation of the executive and supervisory bodies. In the last few years, in a movement that can be considered an intra-European legal convergence, there have been various corporate legislation reforms. This article is devoted to analyzing the results of those reforms, and they have, in fact, created in hitherto traditionally dualistic systems the legal possibility of transitioning to a monistic system. While the dualist system has not been totally abandoned, an alternative option of organ formation has been introduced in selected companies, modelled on certain case law jurisdictions. The article thus shows the evolution and reasons for such a process and assess its effectiveness. The article does not, in principle, analyse the traditional Western European legal systems, where the issues in question have been discussed for years in a theoretical context. Instead, it focuses on new legislation in Poland and Ukraine, two countries which have recently made very significant changes to their legal frameworks. This approach makes it possible to highlight the latest European trends. In the article, reference is made to a number of arguments supporting the introduced mixed system, while simultaneously rejecting the previous view that legislation must adopt either a single-tier or a two-tier system. This therefore relates to the private nature of companies, the freedom to shape their internal relations, and the experiences of European companies.
ON A CONSTITUTIONAL AND NATIONAL IDENTITY OF THE EU MEMBER STATES: SAME BUT DIFFERENT?
This article examines whether the concepts of national identity and constitutional identity in the European Union’s legal framework can be used interchangeably. By tracing the historical evolution and travaux préparatoires of Article 4(2) TEU, the paper demonstrates that the drafters consistently employed the term national identity as an autonomous concept of EU primary law, deliberately omitting any reference to constitutionality. Building on the theoretical framework proposed by Elise Cloots, the article develops a teleological and interpretative argument showing that the interchangeable use of these terms lacks textual and historical support. It then examines how Member States’ constitutional courts, particularly the German Federal Constitutional Court have constructed a doctrine of constitutional identity review rooted in national constitutional law. This jurisprudence distinguishes constitutional identity as an absolute, domestically defined limit to European integration, while national identity under Article 4(2) TEU functions as a principle of respect constraining the exercise of Union competences. The article concludes that conflating these two notions risks both conceptual confusion and constitutional deadlock within the EU. A clear differentiation between national and constitutional identity is therefore essential for maintaining a coherent balance between national sovereignty and the primacy of EU law.
LEGAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A MAXIMUM MORTGAGE WITH AN ANALYSIS OF THE LATEST CASE LAW
The article examines the legal nature and transferability of the maximum mortgage under the Slovenian Law of Property Code (Stvarnopravni zakonik or in abbreviation SPZ), focusing on Article 146(4) and its interpretation in case law and theory. It first recalls the accessory nature of liens, which normally follow the secured claim as to creation, scope, transfer and extinction. Against this background, it shows how the maximum mortgage was designed to secure fluctuating or future claims arising from an ongoing creditor–debtor relationship, up to a registered ceiling amount. The authors reconstruct the prevailing Slovenian view that, in the case of a maximum mortgage, the accessory link exists not between individual claims and the mortgage but between the business relationship and the maximum mortgage as a protective right in rem. They contrast this functional understanding with the literal wording of Article 146(4) SPZ, which excludes the transfer of the mortgage when a secured claim is assigned, and with the conservative approach of the Supreme Court. According to its case law, an assigned claim secured by a maximum mortgage is transferred without security, which reduces its market value and narrows the practical usefulness of this instrument. Using German and Austrian law as key comparators, the article argues that the Slovenian solution is unnecessarily rigid and departs from models that allow, under certain conditions, the transfer or transformation of a maximum mortgage into a fixed mortgage when claims are assigned or when the credit relationship is reduced to a single outstanding claim. The authors endorse the more recent doctrinal position and the approach taken by the Higher Court of Ljubljana, under which individual “sub-mortgages” arise within the maximum mortgage and accompany the assigned claim to the new creditor, creating a community of mortgagees governed by general rules of the Obligations Code. The general view that a maximum mortgage is more flexible than a fixed mortgage is, in the Slovenian context, undermined by the current statutory wording and restrictive case law, which call for a systemic and functional reinterpretation of Article 146 SPZ – or, failing that, for legislative reform.
DO VARIOUS FORMS OF CORRUPTION EXERT DIFFERENT EFFECTS ON ENTREPRENEURSHIP: EVIDENCE FROM CEE (POST)TRANSITION COUNTRIES
The paper analyses the effect of different forms of corruption on entrepreneurship in a sample of Central and Eastern European countries: Albania, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Poland, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Serbia, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia. The contribution of this paper is twofold. The paper contributes to the existing literature through panel data analysis of the effect of various forms of corruption on new business density rates in the 2006-2020 period. The types of corruption included in the analysis cover judicial, legislative, executive, and public sector corruption, and political corruption index as the aggregate measure. The results show that not all corruption types have the same effect on entrepreneurship. Aggregate measure of political corruption adversely affects formal entrepreneurship. However, three particular types of corruption – public sector corruption, legislative corrupt activities and judicial corruption – have opposite effects. While public sector corruption and legislative corrupt activities harm the new business density rate, it is shown that larger judicial corruption is positively related to the number of newly registered firms.
ACCOUNTING BOOKS AS EVIDENCE IN TAX AND CRIMINAL PROCEEDINGS OF THE REPUBLIC OF SERBIA
The authors’ focus is directed toward the analysis of one frequently used means of evidence, as well as a comparative analysis of this means of evidence in tax and criminal proceedings. After a brief overview of the taxpayers’ obligation to keep accounting books, special attention is devoted to the role of accounting books as evidence, first in tax proceedings and then in criminal proceedings.The importance of business books from the aspect of tax and criminal proceedings is reflected in the fact that in the event of a lack of evidence of the existence of the criminal offense of tax evasion, the court will issue an acquittal. Namely, there is a possibility that during the tax proceedings, omissions may occur that relate to an inadequately determined amount of tax liability or inadequate documentation used when determining the tax liability. In such cases, an expert examination of business books is a crucial evidentiary measure for convicting the perpetrator of the criminal offense of tax evasion. Irregularities in the keeping of business books during the tax proceedings may lead to an acquittal of the tax evader due to a lack of evidence. For certain types of taxes, as well as for particular categories of taxpayers, accounting books play a key role in determining their tax liability. This raises the question of whether the role of this means of evidence in tax and criminal proceedings has been adequately regulated by the applicable procedural laws. In response to this question, the authors, on the basis of the results obtained from their research, will propose a de lege ferenda solution.
SPECIFIC TOOLS FOR THE INTERGENERATIONAL PRESERVATION OF FAMILY COMPANIES AND WEALTH IN SLOVENIA AND HUNGARY
Family companies constitute an essential type of company in national and global economies, yet their long-term survival depends on effective succession planning. If the intergenerational transfer is not arranged in advance, the company faces the risk of fragmentation and even dissolution. Rather than comparing an identical legal tool in both jurisdictions, the article investigates two different instruments: one for advance and timely planning, and the other for the prevention of fragmentation through succession when no prior planning exists. Each tool is analyzed within its national framework, with the aim of demonstrating how such instruments may serve as role models not only for Slovenia and Hungary, but also for other jurisdictions. From the perspective of Slovenian law, the article considers whether special protective succession rules, similar to those preventing the fragmentation of protected farms, could be introduced to preserve family companies in cases where no prior transfer arrangements exist. From the perspective of Hungarian law, the paper analyses the asset management foundation, a private-law mechanism that allows founders to determine conditions for the governance and transfer of family wealth across multiple generations. The comparison reveals two contrasting approaches: a statutory framework aimed at preventing fragmentation of family companies, and a flexible private-law tool reserved primarily for families with substantial assets. Despite their differences in scope and accessibility, both instruments may coexist within a national framework: one facilitating advance succession planning, the other preventing fragmentation in its absence.
INTERPRETATIVE DECISIONS OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL COURT OF NORTH MACEDONIA IN THE FUNCTION OF PROTECTING HUMAN RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS
The paper examines the “tense” relationship between the Constitutional Court and the Assembly through the prism of two significant innovations in constitutional judiciary in the Republic of North Macedonia. The first concerns the introduction of what, in European constitutional judiciary, is called an “interpretative decision”. Pursuant to Article 36 of the Act of the Court, the Court can conduct an initial review of constitutionality, can express doubts and instituted proceedings, and in the resolution can set out its legal positions, but defers the final decisions and prescribes a time-limit for the adopter to bring the regulation into conformity, under the repressive “threat” of a repealing or annulling decision. The purpose of this innovation is for the Court to preserve the integrity of the legal order while granting the body that adopted the contested regulation one further (time-limited) opportunity to correct itself and return to the sphere of constitutionality, thereby preventing legal vacuums that could have serious implications for the order. The paper will analyze the objectives, the legal nature and the effect of this type of “repressive interpretative decisions”, the grounds for their introduction, and their impact on the “tense” and complex interaction between the Constitutional Court (as a negative) and the Assembly (as a positive legislator). The second innovation consists of the introduction of the possibility for the Court to monitor the implementation of constitutionality, legality, and the rights and freedoms of individuals and citizens as guaranteed by the Constitution, and, at its own discretion, to adopt a special report indicating the need for measures to be undertaken for their realization and protection, which shall be submitted to the competent authority.
UNTANGLING THE POPULIST KNOT: ADMINISTRATIVE LAW AND THE STRUGGLE FOR RULE OF LAW RESTORATION IN POLAND
This article explores the significant challenges of restoring the rule of law in Poland following a period of democratic backsliding in 2015-2023. It also analyzes how administrative law was distinctively well suited for instrumentalization by the populist government, facilitated by its standard features like enforcement privileges and policy discretion when constitutional checks were weakened. This strategic use of administrative tools, alongside attacks on judicial independence, created a deeply interwoven "populist knot" of legal and political changes. Rule of law restoration in Poland is not just legal reversal, but a profound political struggle within a polarized society. It is constrained by institutional factors such as cohabitation with two consecutive Presidents, who are aligned with the previous ruling party, and the control of key bodies like the Constitutional Tribunal and the National Council of the Judiciary (KRS) by political appointees. While some progress is being made through actions not requiring legislation, reforming the administrative state and its legal framework to prevent future instrumentalization remains a huge challenge, especially in the light of the 2025 presidential elections, surprisingly won by a populist candidate opposing the government. An important problem is also confronting the administrative law's own potential for authoritarian use and to ensure it serves its protective function for all. The article argues that understanding how administrative law is being instrumentalized and addressing its structural vulnerabilities is crucial for building a resilient rule of law system against future populist pressures.
RIGHT TO INFORMATION IN MISDEMEANOUR PROCEEDINGS - ANALYSIS OF PRACTITIONERS` EXPERIENCE IN CROATIA
The paper presents the results of a study on the experiences of practitioners with the right to information in misdemeanour proceedings in the Republic of Croatia. The research was conducted in the form of semi-structured interviews with three groups of practitioners: prosecutors, adjudicators and defence attorneys. The research focused on three groups of rights that substantively constitute the right to information in accordance with the Directive on the right to information in criminal proceedings and the practice of the ECtHR: the right to information concerning procedural rights, the right to information concerning accusations and the right of access to the case file. Following the previously conducted theoretical-normative research, which pointed out certain inconsistencies in the current legislation on misdemeanours, the empirical research aimed to verify the results of the theoretical research and to determine the compliance of the legal framework and practice with the Directive on the right to information in criminal proceedings. The study of practitioners' experiences in misdemeanour proceedings revealed the weaknesses of the current legislation and paved the way for future research and the creation of a comprehensive and coherent legal framework.
AUTOMATION IN ACTION: EXPERIENCE WITH QUICK AND COST-EFFICIENT ADMINISTRATIVE DECISIONS IN HUNGARY
Automated decision-making can streamline administrative procedures, reducing the burden on authorities in straightforward cases. However, a concerning trend emerges: negative decisions challenged by clients are often so simplified that they render judicial review meaningless, leaving issues unresolved. This is not merely a technical issue but a constitutional one. Clients are frequently deprived of meaningful reasoning, procedural safeguards, and effective legal remedies. Administrative decisions should uphold legality and transparency, ensuring fair proceedings. When a decision lacks proper justification and courts cannot assess its legality, it becomes unsuitable for review, undermining due process. If automation leads to decisions lacking transparency and accountability, it threatens fundamental legal principles. This study aims to show how automated -decision making is done in practice and what legal problems has emerged already by exploring casefiles and judicial decisions to highlight the risks of automated decision-making and calls for a balanced approach to maintain efficiency while safeguarding constitutional rights and judicial oversight.
PROTEST COMMENTS ON FACEBOOK AFTER THE “JANUARY TRAGEDY” OF 2022 IN KAZAKHSTAN (THE FIRST 7 DAYS AFTER THE RESUMPTION OF WIRED AND MOBILE INTERNET)
The goal of this study is to examine how Facebook comments reflect protest sentiment during the immediate aftermath of Internet resumption in January 2022 in Kazakhstan. The article focuses on analyzing protest comments on Facebook following the “January tragedy” of 2022 in Kazakhstan. Specific tasks include: (1) collecting and analyzing posts and comments from official Akimat Facebook pages during the first week of restored connectivity; (2) identifying and categorizing protest-related comments and their thematic content; (3) comparing regional variations in protest expressions; and (4) deriving insights for improving local government engagement online. To achieve this, I use the data collected on Facebook for the first 7 days after the resumption of wired and mobile Internet service. I am studying 17 official pages of Akimats in regions and cities of republican significance; 507 posts and 912 comments were published from January 10 to January 16, 2022. Using systematic content analysis, I coded each post and its associated comments for protest indicators, thematic categories, and regional patterns. Quantitative frequencies and qualitative thematic interpretation were applied to the collected posts and comments. As a result, I identified 667 comments with signs of protest. Thus, the opportunity to qualitatively examine some of the messaging from that period provides insights not only into the particular concerns of the citizenry but also into the willingness of local government entities, the Akimats, to provide an online forum for the dissemination of public concerns. Practical implications include recommendations for regional authorities on active social media monitoring, transparent communication of policy measures, and mechanisms to address socioeconomic grievances, aiming to reduce the barrier between citizens and political elites and to preempt the escalation of online dissent into offline mobilization.
“A FLURRY OF ARRIVALS BY SMALL BOATS” – FRAMING ALBANIAN IMMIGRATION IN THE BRITISH PRESS
This article investigates the metaphorical representation of Albanian immigrants in the British press between January 2021 and September 2023, a period marked by a noticeable increase in Albanian asylum seekers and a harsh political rhetoric around immigration. Drawing on the framework of Critical Metaphor Analysis, the study examines how metaphors are employed to frame migration and construct public perceptions of Albanian immigrants in the British press. The analysis is based on a corpus of news articles from a range of ideologically different newspapers, such as The Guardian, the Daily Mail, and The Telegraph. Four dominant metaphorical scenarios emerged from the data: the space container scenario, the natural disaster scenario, the commodity scenario, and the war scenario. These metaphors consistently portray Albanian immigrants as dehumanized, threatening, or lacking agency. The space container metaphor scenario presents Britain as a space under pressure, while the natural disaster metaphor scenario emphasizes migration as an uncontrollable and overwhelming force. The commodity metaphor scenario reduces immigrants to objects of trade, often linking them with economic or criminal narratives. Finally, the war metaphor scenario depicts immigration as an act of aggression or invasion, especially prominent in right-leaning media.
CHILDREN'S RIGHTS IN THE DIGITAL AGE: SHARENTING AS A LEGAL AND PEDAGOGICAL CHALLENGE
The digital age brings numerous challenges for parenting and childhood. One of these challenges is sharenting. The theoretical foundations of this study, approached interdisciplinarily, combine legal and pedagogical insights and principles. This study, which used a combined quantitative and qualitative research design, was part of a broader research into the trend of parents sharing images, videos, and information about their children on social media. The aim of the study was to explore the perspective of Slovenian parents on sharenting and its specific characteristics. For the analysis of the collected data, descriptive and causal-nonexperimental methods were used, including thematic content analysis of respondents’ answers. The data required for the research were collected via an online questionnaire in 2023, based on a sample of 211 Slovenian parents, anonymously and on a voluntary basis, in compliance with the ethical code. The findings of the study indicate that most parents in Slovenia are unaware of the long-term privacy impacts of sharenting and mostly do not seek their children's consent for posts. Mothers are more active than fathers, and education is not a decisive factor in sharing, highlighting the need for parental digital privacy education.
SOCIAL AND IDEOLOGICAL PRECONDITIONS FOR THE FORMATION OF EUROPEAN NATIONALISM AMID THE RADICALIZATION OF POLITICAL PROCESSES IN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES IN THE EARLY 21ST CENTURY
This article explores the rise of sovereignism in European countries amid the radicalization of political discourse and the ongoing crisis of the European integration project, which has struggled to address the socio-economic and political challenges facing European societies. The research highlights a notable shift in electoral preferences toward nationalist parties, which continue to gain political legitimacy and expand their influence within both national and supranational institutions. The study investigates the underlying causes of the growing ideological confrontation between liberal-integrationist and nationalist forces, the latter of which now represent a significant and organized political presence in Europe. Key characteristics of contemporary nationalist ideology are identified and analyzed. Sovereignism is conceptualized as a socially constructed phenomenon, rooted in evolving national self-awareness and symbolic narratives shaped by historical and political contexts. While the expression of nationalist sentiment varies across regions, its radicalization can contribute to destabilizing political dynamics. In response, European policymakers and scholars are actively seeking strategies to mitigate the rise of polarizing nationalist rhetoric. The author argues that the political legacy of Gaullism offers a potential framework for reconciling national sovereignty with European cooperation and for fostering a more balanced and inclusive political trajectory for the continent.
THE VISEGRAD FOUR COUNTRIES AS AN OBJECT OF CHINA'S GEOPOLITICAL INTERESTS IN THE CONTEXT OF GREAT-POWER CONFRONTATION
This article examines China's geopolitical interests in the Visegrád Four (V4) countries within the context of great-power rivalry. The study highlights how the ongoing global crisis has reshaped bilateral and multilateral relations, with the European Union (EU) emerging as a significant focus of China's strategic influence. The V4 countries, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary, have become especially relevant due to their industrial capacities, relatively recent EU membership, and geographical location on the EU's eastern borders. The research reviews previous studies on China's influence in Europe, including soft-power initiatives such as the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), foreign investments, and trade relations. It explores how various political dynamics within V4 states have affected their stance towards China, noting Poland's cautious engagement, the Czech Republic's increasing alignment with Western allies, Slovakia’s political shifts, and Hungary’s deepening partnership with Beijing. Additionally, the article investigates China’s role in Europe's green energy and digital infrastructure, assessing the implications of economic dependencies. The findings suggest that while China perceives V4 countries as gateways into Europe, geopolitical shifts, including the EU’s Global Gateway Initiative and growing concerns over technological security, challenge Beijing's strategies, prompting V4 countries to reconsider their engagement with China and seek alternative partnerships aligned with EU and NATO frameworks. Ultimately, the study underscores the dual pressures faced by V4 states as they navigate economic opportunities from China and political commitments within the EU and NATO.
RETHINKING POWER SHARING: ASSESSING MODELS THROUGH EXPERT INSIGHTS IN THE BALKANS
The paper examines expert assessments of the effectiveness, sustainability, and integrative potential of power-sharing institutions in three post-conflict Balkan polities—Bosnia and Herzegovina, North Macedonia, and Kosovo—with Montenegro serving as a control case. Drawing on an original survey of 111 scholars and civil-society representatives, the study quantifies expert perceptions of institutional performance, the risk of renewed conflict, and the role of international actors. The findings reveal a common pattern: while power-sharing arrangements have delivered short-term conflict containment and ensured ethnic representation, they have fallen short of fostering durable inter-ethnic integration. By contrasting these results with the more moderate Montenegrin evaluations, the article shows that the lasting intensity of wartime legacies—rather than institutional design alone—shapes expectations of political stability and reconciliation. Methodologically, the study demonstrates the added value of expert surveys for capturing post-conflict dynamics that escape conventional datasets. Substantively, it refines the debate on when and how power-sharing can move beyond elite accommodation to societal integration, providing a baseline against which future longitudinal and comparative research can be gauged.
THE IMPACT OF CULTURAL POLICY ON NATIONAL IDENTITY IN KAZAKHSTAN: AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS
The nation-building process in modern Kazakhstan faces the challenge of forming a consolidated territorial community. Citizens of the country are confronted with a choice between Kazakh and Kazakhstani identity, navigating between its ethnic and nation-state variations. Cultural policy is intended to facilitate national consolidation by minimizing ethnocultural contradictions within the state. The objective of this study is to examine the impact of cultural policy on Kazakhstan’s national identity through empirical analysis. The study adopts a cultural and politico-cultural approach, focusing on the influence of Kazakh culture and the mentality of the Kazakh people on state formation. Additionally, a constructivist methodology is applied to analyze the role of governmental and non-governmental institutions in shaping political reality. A survey was conducted using a quantitative research method. Data collection was carried out through the CAWI (Computer-Assisted Web Interviewing) technique and a structured questionnaire developed in advance. The findings reveal that ethnic Kazakhs exhibit a strong attachment to the Kazakh language and cultural events, whereas ethnic Russians tend to maintain a closer connection to their own language and traditions. Ethnic Russians demonstrate lower participation in Kazakh cultural life and significant resistance to the transition of the Kazakh language to the Latin alphabet.
LEGISLATIVE REMEDIES TO ENSURE THE REASONABLE TERM IN A CRIMINAL TRIAL. THE PLEA AGREEMENT: ROMANIA'S EXPERIENCE
Resolving a criminal case within a reasonable time is an important element of the right to a fair trial. The need to respect the reasonable term is succinctly expressed both in a frequently quoted British adage of justice delayed, justice denied, and in a French saying with a similar content, justice rétive, justice fautive. The purpose of the criminal process is not achieved by merely punishing the guilty. The prosecution must be carried out within a timeframe that proves that the state is taking prompt action to to ensure compliance with the law. Only in this way can the preventive purpose of the punishment be achieved and the confidence of the citizens in the ability of the state to protect them can be preserved. Legislatures are frequently choosing to introduce elements of negotiated justice in order to solve the problem of the length of criminal proceedings. The plea agreement procedure is thus seen in more and more countries as an important means of achieving this objective. The plea agreement was introduced into Romanian law as of January 1, 2014. Previously, court proceedings had become overly formalistic, cumbersome, costly and not expeditious. At the same time, the strict application of the principles of establishing the truth and the direct administration of evidence by the court often led to an unjustified prolongation of the criminal proceedings and an unnecessary waste of state resources in some cases where the guilt of the defendant was obvious. In this study we will try to see whether these objectives have been achieved in any way. To this end, we examined the existing situation in the municipality of Bucharest within the six sector courts and the Bucharest Tribunal from January 1 to September 3, 2024. We verified the number of criminal cases that were resolved by these courts during this period of time. We also researched how many of these cases were solved on the basis of a plea agreement. In the cases where plea agreements were reached, we wanted to find out which offenses were targeted and how long the prosecution lasted. In terms of the time taken to solve the case, we took into consideration the time elapsed between the moment when the prosecution had evidence that the defendant had committed the crime and the time when the plea agreement was concluded. Based on these data, we tried to establish whether the introduction of the plea agreement in the Romanian legislation has really contributed in ensuring a reasonable timeframe and what are the reasons why the institution does not generate the same results as in other countries. The conclusion we have reached is that the institution of the plea agreement did not have the desired effects at the time of its regulation. The time taken to resolve cases has not been reduced, with many cases taking years to resolve, even though their complexity would allow a final solution to be pronounced in a few months.
FUNDAMENTAL BREACH OF CONTRACT AND DEBTOR’S CONDUCT: WHAT’S FAULT GOT TO DO WITH IT?
Although an autonomous legal institute of international contract law, the seeds of the doctrine of fundamental breach of contract may be followed to the ‘seriousness’ requirement present in comparative contract law. Notwithstanding its autonomous notion, the article examines the role of debtor’s conduct in finding a case of fundamental breach. Comparative, international and European legal rules and practice are hence analyzed by putting emphasis on the role of debtor’s conduct. In terms of current legal rules, one may certainly draw a conclusion that debtor’s conduct, especially where it amounts to a fault of a greater degree, makes the finding of a case of fundamental breach of contract more probable. Available case law demonstrates the continuous relevancy of debtor’s fault for finding that fundamental breach has occurred. Such a relevancy, in the view of the authors, is inherent to the morality of promising and cannot be bypassed by introducing a neutral concept of fundamental breach of contract. Analyzed case law shows that courts and arbitrators do consider debtor’s fault; although by omitting its express mentioning. The authors contend that debtor’s fault does and should play a role for the purposes of establishing a uniform notion of fundamental breach of contract. At the end of the day, this is an inevitable consequence of the inherent morality of contractual obligations.
CHALLENGES IN THE FIGHT AGAINST CORRUPTION IN THE EU INTEGRATION PROCESS – CASE STUDY: NORTH MACEDONIA, SERBIA AND MONTENEGRO
An effective fight against corruption is a condition for the rule of law, building a state with functional institutions and respecting human freedoms and rights. Achieving positive results is a challenge for both developed democracies and countries in transition. The paper analyzes the normative and institutional frameworks for fighting corruption in three countries from the Western Balkans, North Macedonia, Serbia and Montenegro, as well as their strategic documents for fighting corruption. Despite the results achieved in the last few decades, the problems with corruption are still complex, and in this direction the focus of this paper is research into the reasons for such a situation as well as the challenges for the future. In the efforts for faster integration into the EU, the three countries are implementing reforms with the aim of more effectively fighting corruption, but there is one key factor for achieving this goal, and that is the existence of political will to fight corruption. This aspect is particularly emphasized in the paper because without political will it is impossible to achieve visible successes in the fight against corruption. The authors emphasize that the best laws can be written, quality strategic documents can be adopted, but if they are not implemented, it is as if they do not exist. The paper pays special attention to the transition process in North Macedonia as well as to the implementation of the current National Strategy for the Prevention of Corruption and Conflict of Interest. In addition, the authors present several proposals for changes in the normative and institutional framework of North Macedonia for the fight against corruption. The methodological approach is a combination of several methods, content analysis, comparative legal research, historical and statistical methods.
THE STRUCTURE OF PRISON SENTENCING AS A MECHANISM FOR ENHANCING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF WOMEN’S RESOCIALIZATION
This study examines how the organization of daily activities and leisure time in women's penitentiary institutions can enhance their rehabilitation and preparation for reintegration into family and societal life. The research argues that structured time management in correctional facilities, when properly implemented by institutional staff, serves as a crucial factor in successful resocialization of female inmates. Through qualitative methods including open-ended interviews with 31 incarcerated women and expert evaluations with 40 correctional professionals, the study identifies five primary activity domains: vocational work (weight coefficient 0.39), peer socialization (0.26), educational programming (0.17), family communication (0.11), and sports/skill development (0.07). The analysis reveals significant institutional barriers to effective rehabilitation, particularly inadequate recreational facilities (identified as the most pressing issue with 0.41 weight), insufficient health considerations (0.28), and poor compliance with rehabilitation-focused legislation (0.19). The findings demonstrate that current penitentiary practices in Kazakhstan frequently fail to meet international standards for female offender rehabilitation, particularly regarding proximity to family locations and implementation of vocational training programs. The study concludes with specific recommendations for improving correctional programming, emphasizing the need for enhanced educational opportunities, family visitation policies, and structured leisure activities that collectively support post-release social integration.